Group work in Primary Schools

Group report in Primary SchoolsGroup organise, know to incompatibles as cooperative or cooperative stoping, is defined as a station in which, ii or more people fit or attempt to gip something unitedly Wikipedia Contri only whenors, 2010. This paper focuses on how fails collaboratively impacts both t sever whollyying and acquisition in unproblematic schools. It describes the background to the increase of collaborative encyclopaedism and highlights the techniques a lot employed. The principles to effective ag company make believe atomic human body 18 explained, with both advantages and disadvantages n 1d.Collaborative culture is a pedagogical strategy which go fors a manakin of discipline activities to enhance a disciples visit outing of a circumstance topic. This is an improvement to traditional acquisition models withal defined as non-interactive lectures, where furiousowship is make believeed from direct lectures or the reading of books and expre ssions. Traditional learnedness commands precise atomic interaction or dampenicipation from the school-age childs, therefore a lot or very little whitethorn be learnt depending on the one-on-one. Collaborative learnedness consequently stands as a constructivist approach to learning, and is identified as originating from a constructivist epistemology, as students ar asked to participate and contribute to their own learning and forgement.The ideas of scholars such(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as Burner, Kohlberg, Piaget and Vygotsky atomic number 18 used in the educatement of collaborative learning, which fundamentally implies that both the student and the environment argon actively dynamic entities in the learning process as the student tries to impersonate the littleons. This process requires that intimacy be discovered and translated using language and other learning support to which the students so-and-so actively relate.Lawrence Kohlberg researched the mo ral decisions made by children. His investigation is such that he surfaceed an inter adopt process offering a number of scenarios, all(prenominal) with a moral dilemma for which he had pre-determined answers. He realise that six stages of moral development existed and that some people argon futile to r severally well-nigh advanced takes of ethical interpretation. He thereby cogitate that the development of moral reasoning happens in a particular sequence, and that each step of the way is a precursor to the next KidsDevelopment.co.uk, 2010.Jean Piagets opening of cognitive Development suggests that individuals go through and through a series of stages on their way to independent thinking. Piaget states that all companionship concerning reality results from actions or trading operations upon it, which makes it change, revealing its st commensurate and variational properties (Piaget, 1980 p222).Lev Vygotsky believed that socialization increases cognition and often meter chan ges a childs thoughts and behaviours. Vygotsky suggests that learning is achieved in three ways imitative, instructed and collaborative. Imitative learning involves the student simply copying what was taught and instructed learning involves the student following directions previously given. Vygotskys work was focussed on two important ideas. First being the zona of Proximal Development (ZPD) this describes the train of differentiation amongst a line of work that a student plunder solve independently and a hassle in which a student exit require the assistance of others. ZPD is often identified as an individuals level of actual competency relative to their level for potential development. The instant idea is cognise as scaffolding and describes the feel of support given to students when it is desired.Group work allows students to work together in venial groups, combining people with change backgrounds, experiences, technical and intellectual competencies, towards the in crease of a specific heading. Each member of the team has the responsibility of learning the square for himself-importance, while also helping other members to distinctly understand the lesson thus creating an atmosphere of achievement (Palmer, Peters and Streetman. 2008). Students thereby gain both association and social skills. The use of conclave discussions helps students to explain concepts and ideas by providing immediate feedbacks. Students learn how to troubleshoot cooperatively in order to come up the exceed solution to a problem. When students formulate their own solutions in this manner, they are truly thinking precisely (Davis, Mahler Noddings, 1990).Swortzel expresses that there are two major theoretical approaches to crowd work Motivational and Cognitive (Swortzel, 1997). Group work is seen as motivational because students signalise that their success or failure in the attainment of the specified purpose is dependent on them being able to work together as a team. They thereby push each other to get the charge line of works done properly and on time, in so doing cooperative learning increases students motivation to do academic work (Johnson, Johnson Holubec, 1986).The cognitive approach suggests that through group work students become more critical with their thinking. Students are stimulated to think outside the box, thus acquiring increased levels of perception, awareness, and reasoning and sentiment abilities. Group discussions are very interactive with each individual expressing their viewpoint. indoors a diverse group, there will be undoubtedly varying opinions consequently highlighting approaches to the same topic.A collaborative framework moldiness first be realised before the implementation of collaborative learning techniques. The teacher should research collaborative learning and observer other teachers who bear already implement the use of group work. The teacher should grasp a good judgment of the advantages and d isadvantages to group work and moldiness develop a keen appreciation for the technique of scaffolding. The teacher then directs to see if collaborative learning is ideal for the subject being taught, the type of students and apply into account classroom restrictions, if some(prenominal).Teachers implementing collaborative learning are pass judgment to be competent in the following areasSpecifying instructional objectivesDetermining group size of it and assign students to groupsDetermining Group Size and Assign Students to GroupsClassroom recordingPlanning instructional materials to uphold Interdependence duty assignment group rolesAssigning tasksStructuring absolute interdependence and accountabilityExplaining the criteria for successSpecifying desired behavioursBefore implementing collaborative learning the teacher should explain to the students their decision for the use of group work and explain the advantages and disadvantages. The determination of group sizes may vary depending on the temper of the task and the workload. Groups can be homogeneous or heterogeneous, grouping students with equivalent interests and strengths or they may be totally randomly selected. Once groups are established they commonly do not change very often, so as to allow students to develop a constructive operative affinity with each other.It is important that the furniture in the classroom be organized in a way which allows the students to work as a shape uping block, earlier facing each other, whilst allowing for their flexible movements. Teachers should take into account the existing resources undeniable for successful task completion and condition that they are readily genial by the groups. The instructions and materials a teacher chooses for a group should ensure that each member of the group makes a meaningful contribution and that individual assignments in spite of appearance the group will be evenly distributed.Teachers should structure positive interd ependence and accountability by regularly testing both the groups and the members of the group for understanding of the subject matter. Members should be encouraged to be able to actively defend the stance of the group and their own. The criteria for success of the group should be clearly communicated and measures put into place to guess the groups performance as a unit as well as the individual performances of the members.Once the groups receive been established, teachers use up to reminder the behaviour of the students and assist with needs while monitoring. In so doing, teachers may assist with the answering of hesitancys and provide and alternate point of view or opinion. Teachers may also provide feedback on the work ideal or the progress made. Should conflicts arise within the groups, teachers should intervene to ensure that such conflicts are quickly resolved and explain the implications of undesirable behaviours. It is also very important that teachers provide approbat ion and, or motivation where it is deserved.Students play the most important role in the art of collaborative learning. Their roles accept and are not limited to, working together, actively listening to each other, holding records of work and progress, questioning each other, assuming personal responsibility and complete the assigned task.An article written by Dillenbourg and Schneider states that there are a few weapons to collaborative learningConflict or Disagreement, suggesting that when coadjutor to peer conflicts arise, social factors cause learners to ignore the disagreement and to some extent forces them to find a feasible solution to the problem. One aspect of this theory states that diverging viewpoints usually lead to academic gains, while the other states that when conflicts are not verbalized they do not predict positive answers (Dillenbourg and Schneider, 1995). This article draws two conclusions relative to this mechanism one being that slight misunderstandings can be as efficient as a clear conflict between two agents who applaudively believe P and not P and the number being that verbal interactions generated to solve conflict are related to learning outcomes (Dillenbourg and Schneider, 1995).Alternative Proposal also referred to as the confirmation biases by Dillenbourg and Schneider (1995). In so doing students actively develop ideas that support their suggestions and completely disregard ideas that do not. They often times cannot abandon their idea or suggestion because another(prenominal)(prenominal) suggestion may not be forthcoming however other group members make alternate suggestions.(Self-) ex inventionation the Self-Explanation effect, as it is in known in many cognitive information literature, describes that in a situation where one student is more knowledge that the other, the latter will mechanically learn from the form, and also that the former will grasp a improve understanding of the topic being explained as he endeavo urs to translate into to ground to with the latter student can actively relate. Having successfully explained the more well-educated student would fork up improved upon his skills to interrelate and gained improved confidence. Had there been any un authenticties in the explanation, someone even more knowledgeable might be able to clarify.Internalization the article explains this mechanism as one in which students explain or justify their suggestions to each other, the verbalization of such impacts all involved and that the concepts communicated are integrated into the listeners reasoning. Thinking is viewed a discussion that one has with oneself and which develops on the basis of discussions we had with others (Dillenbourg and Schneider, 1995). The article also states that for this mechanism to be effective a few conditions must be met, One condition is that subjects can only assimilate concepts which are within their zone of proximal development, i.e. within the neighbourhood of the current cognitive level. Another condition is that the less able peer is not left as a passive listener, but participates into the joint problem solving strategy (Dillenbourg and Schneider, 1995)Appropriation, this is explained as one student observing the ideas or explanations of another and taking those ideas or explanations and building on it to make their own. Learning is two-fold as the first student reinterprets his actions relative to that of the second, and the second student got a sound foundation on which to build.Shared Cognitive Load, this involves the distribution of tasks which will come together to achieve the overall objective of the group. When the workload is even deal outd between students, each student can work meticulously on the assigned task, thereby eliminating redundancies and improving the dexterity of the group.Mutual Regulation, by employing any of or a combination of the mechanisms previously described, students often consent to regulate the acti ons of each other to ensure that the stipulated guidelines are adhered to for the attainment of their goals.Social Grounding, described lucidly by Dillenbourg and Schneider as the mechanism by which an individual attempts to maintain the belief that his partner has understood what he meant, at least to an extent which is sufficient to carry out the task at hand (Dillenbourg and Schneider, 1995). This mechanism requires the speaker to check for understanding, and where misunderstand is transparent to clarify, thereby building a share understanding of the problem.George W. Gagnon. Jr., and Michelle Collay developed another design for collaborative learning and in this model teachers develop a series of steps that their teaching structure follows as listed belowThey develop a situation for the students to explain (Gagnon and Collay, 2004)They select a process for groupings of materials and students (Gagnon and Collay, 2004)They build a bridge between what students already know and wha t the teachers want them to learn (Gagnon and Collay,2004)They anticipate questions to ask and answer without giving away an explanation (Gagnon and Collay, 2004)They encourage students to exhibit a record of their thinking by sharing it with others (Gagnon and Collay, 2004), andThey dally students reflections about their learning (Gagnon and Collay, 2004).A comparison of there collaborative techniques, is illustrated in Appendix 1.Johnson, Johnson, and Smith (1991) highlights three key tasks teachers should follow for the evaluation of the efficiency and effectiveness after there group work is completed. Firstly, teachers should provide a closure through summarization. That is, to summarize the lessons important points or to have each group explain their work and the points they found of most significance. Secondly is to evaluate the students learning, by assessing how they have attained or failed to attain the desired outcome and providing the feedback required, allowing student s to improve on their ability to work as a group and hence personal development. Thirdly, teachers should make note of the techniques that worked and why they worked and if necessary jell their lessons.A popular definition of constructivism is that Constructivism is a theory of knowledge which claims that knowledge is not passively received but actively constructed by the learner, and that the employment of cognition is adaptive, serving to organise experience, rather than discover reality(online, 2010) Group work has academic, social and physiological benefits to both students and teachers. Academic benefits allow the development of critical thinking and the active involvement of students in the learning process. The social benefits include the development of social learning systems for students and builds diversity understanding among students and teachers. The physiological benefits include increased self-esteem through peer-to-peer instructions and it reduces the anxiety of s tudents.Although collaborative learning seems to be dependent on the actions and willingness to learn, which should for many be a vivid process, there are many disadvantages as there are advantages to is implementation. A few of the obstacles faced are some students prefer to work competitively rather that collaboratively, teachers lack the ability to readily assess the work produced, teachers sometimes do not know how to measure the effectiveness of their teachings in a collaborative setting, sometimes the assigned tasks are not applicable to a students goals or abilities, and sometimes the tasks are not difficult enough to quarrel but not so difficult as to stonewall a conversation. Some groups may be comprised of slow learners who may be viewed as others as invaluable, thereby promoting superior behaviour by the fast learners. card 1, Appendix 2, illustrated various group structures and the advantages and disadvantages to these groups.Nigel Hastings and Karen Chantrey-Wood fro m Nottingham Trent University explores the many strategies teachers utilize in group work activities, many of which are strongly endorsed by a committee known as the Plowden Committee. By spending time with groups of children, teachers could mark their teaching to the needs of the individuals of that group to a greater extent than when working with an entire class of students as a whole. This also ensures that all children have a reasonable amount of direct contact with their teacher unheeding of the fact that they are working in groups Hastings Wood, 2002. This suggests that collaborative learning enhances the circumstance of individualized attention given to students, by introducing one-on-one interactions between students and peers and students and teachers.The article also illustrates that classroom arrangement is very important in ensuring that collaborative learning is efficient and effective. It shows that collaborative learning in widely legitimate and very commonly pra cticed across the globe In primary classrooms throughout the UK, it is standard practice for children to sit around grouped tables usually with four to six children in each group. Such arrangements are also common in primary schools in other English-speaking countries, Australia and regular army for example. Precisely because this configuration is so normal and so well established in our schools, it is unusual to ask about its rationale or to question its appropriateness Hastings Wood, 2002.An abstract written from an experiment conducted by Gillies and Ashman, One deoxycytidine monophosphate and ninety-two Grade 6 children participated in a study which compared the make on behavioural interactions and achievement of (a) cooperative learning in which group members were trained to collaborate to facilitate each others learning, and (b) cooperative learning in which members were not trained but were merely told to help each other. severalize random assignment of participants occ urred so that each gender-balanced group consisted of one high-, two medium-, and one low-ability student(Gillies Ashman, 1999). The observations showed that the students who worked in the Trained groups where more responsive and utile to each other, giving explanations where necessary to assist as they worked together. It showed that students in the fiery groups were a lot less helpful towards or cooperative with each other. From the results it was also concluded that the children in the trained groups exercised more autonomy with their learning and obtained higher learning outcomes than untrained peers (Gillies Ashman, 1999). This study is one of the many to evidence to the success of group work.Despite some drawbacks Collaborative learning has many benefits, as is explained, ranging from academic to physiological and it implementation in primary schools is instead a positive move. Students at the primary school level are quite impressionable and there is no better time fo r them to develop the very valuable competences that working in a group has to offer. At the primary school level they are mature enough to have an understanding of what group work requires. Many of the studies conducted were centralized around puerility developments. Students who can successfully work in groups from the primary school level are usually better equipped for when entering higher level learning institutions. They would have learnt to comfortably relate with peers and adults, such as teachers or other authority figures, they would have learnt the value of self-expression and self-explanation, actively listen and respect the views of others. These students realize that as individuals we have different backgrounds, experiences and traditions and as such may have diverging approaches to the same problem. These students will also be better able to differentiate between the need to work collaborative and the need to work competitively and in so doing will know when scoop up to apply the respective approaches.This research has revealed that both the teachers and the students play a opposite role in the success of collaborative learning. Teachers are not expected to only assign tasks and sit back while the students work on their own. Teachers must play an active role throughout the process. They must plan for the assignment with clearly structured tasks that will promote collaborative interactions, promote interdependency and stimulate cognitive thinking among students. Teacher must monitor the process providing ongoing feedback and be readily able to resolve conflicts should they arise. Teachers should be able to actively scaffold their students, knowing when their support is needed and that it should gradually be withdraw.Students in order to successfully achieve their objectives in groups must appreciate the benefits of group work. They must have a clear understanding of the desired objective and the sub-task requirement to successfully achieve the objective. They must be able to actively and reflectively listen to each other and utilize creativity and objectivity to work positively together. In so doing they will learn to foster positive work attitudes with others, thereby improving on their interpersonal skills as they prepare for the work world.Appendix 1 cardinal Constructivist Design Models 11. The Learning Cycle2. The Learning Step developed by George W. Gagnon. Jr. and Michelle Collay3. The Information Construction (ICON) model created by Robert O. McClintock and John B. Black, and is very similar to Dillenbourg and Schneider.Appendix 2Table 1 Forms of Cooperative Groups2 stir OF GROUPWHAT IS THIS?WORKS BEST FORBENEFITSDRAWBACKSPair-share2 students with one problem share their ideas or questions. Each person speaks, listens, gives feedback.Content that requires discussion, reflection, or explanation.Increased appointment time, Helps those who are shyFewer perspectives and solutionsJigsawEach member of the small group researches one part of the question /content for a certain amount of time. The members of the group come back together. Each member teaches his/her part to the rest of the group.Content with four or five parts to research.Students gain teaching and research skillsSome students feel pressured by a time limitSplit-class discussionThe class is rupture into half. Each side discusses /debates their knowledge /beliefs, etc.Debates or discussionsStudents may change their opinion or develop a different perspectiveSome students may speak less with such a large group.Random groups of 3Class is split into groups of 3. The groups discuss the topic.Predicting what will happen, responding to a situation.Receive a variety of feedback, group members are accountableEasy to leave out or team up against a shy student or one who has a different opinionAbility/Interest/Friendship GroupStudents are divided into groups based on some quality that they all have in common.Creating plays/skits or an activit y in which students must work together outside of class.Students can work at a pace that best suits them, students are rarely bored and often motivatedIt is unrealistic to find a completely homogeneous group, weaker or unpopular students may be excluded.Diversity GroupsStudents are formed into groups where they come from a wide variety of backgrounds, interests, etc.Exploring geography, history, and diverse lifestyles.There are many opportunities to gain different perspectivesMinorities may become confusedMulti-aged groupsStudents are divided into groups in which there are a mixture of agesOlder students teaching younger students (i.e. science experiments).Older students- there is less pressure to compete with peers, Younger students fell important that an older person is spending time with themOlder students may be a bad influence Older students may not know how to work with a younger child or an at risk studentPeer-led ConferencesStudents prepare and lead a discussion of material with parents, instructors, students, etc.A major project in which students set up stations for several intelligences.Students get the opportunity to authentically teach, students learn self confidence.Students whose parents are inactive in the school may be alienated from those whose parents participate some students may not be involved in interactions.NotesThese diagrams were obtained from http//www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/implementation_sub1.htmlThis table was obtained from http//projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Cooperative_LearningFrequently_Asked_Questions_about_Cooperative_Learning